Carnatic Collections

           

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Important elements of Carnatic music

INTRODUCTION:                         The origin of Carnatic music , or the South Indian classical music can be traced back to the age of  vedas . Bharata's Natya Sastra , from around the 5th century A.D. , and Saranga Deva's Sangita Ratnakara , from the early13th century A.D. , are considered the to be the earliest recorded documents available on the theory and performance of Indian classical music . The history of Carnatic music is incomplete without stating about the contributions made by the saints Sri Purandharadasaru ( 15th century A.D.) , Sri Thyagarajar , Sri Shyama Sastri ( all of 18th century A.D.) , and left an enduring legacy of compositions. This tradition has a rich heritage and is perfectly attuned with Indian culture and religion. Carnatic music is based on a 22 scale note (swaras) on contrary to the earlier 12 note scale that is used in the western classical music. But in all its practical aspects and puposes, not more than 16 notes are generally used. A unique combination of these notes , or swara as they are said to evolves separate  ragas. The features and the constraints of a raga will be clearly defined in the arrangement of the notes in its arohanam ( ascending notes ) and avarohanam ( descending notes ). Thus , in Carnatic music , the raga connotes a mood or a route in which the music is supposed to travel. . Different combinations of the notes gives rise to different raga . Thus , there are thousands of unique raga as per theory though very few of them are being used for performances in the present day. gamaka and brighaa are the two most important features of the ragaa. The former refers to the modulation of the frequency of a particular swara and the latter refers to the speed with which the musician performs a set of swaras or notes. Both the gamaka and the brigha helps to improve the appeal of the composition that is rendered . Western music is often based ona pattern of flat notes, on the contrary, here , the swaras are performed using various modulations . The brigha could be often 8 , 16 or so on . Another very important aspect of the Carnatic music is the thalam or the rhythm. The thalam is the rhythm of the piece that is being performed . Today, there exists more than hundred thalams , but here also, very few of them are in use . The most popular thalam have three , four , five, seven or eight beats in them. The Melakarta Ragams The Melakarta Ragams refers to the basic 72 Janaka (parent) ragams for all of the infinite number of other ragams in Carnatic Music.  All of these ragams have seven notes saptaswaras, that is that they have all seven swaras which are- Sa, Ree, Ga, Ma, Pa, Da, Ni, and Sa.  The system is further divided into two sets of 36 ragams each - The first set with the first Ma and the second with a sharper Ma .   This is very similar to the Western concept of scales and the circle of flats. Sapta Talas This system of talams is the rythmic basis for Carnatic music. It is based on 7 core talas whcih use only 3 of the 6 possible components of an Indian talam - Anudrutam, Drutam, Laghu, Guru, Plutam, and Kakapadam. The Seven Talams are Dhruva, Matya, Rupaka, Jhampa, Triputa, Ata, and Eka Talams.  Using these sapta talas all of the 150 Carnatic talams can be derived. 12 Chakras of music the mind, body and soul Indian classical music, philosophy, yogic teachings - many of these are attributed to have its roots in the four vedas. In the human endeavour of our self-realization and awakening towards the oneness with the nature and the creator, classical music, philosophy and yogic teachings are all considered as the experiential tools. For centuries, we have excelled in exploring various aspects and are constantly redefining with every passing phase of time and years. But at the core of it are these ever so relevant well-defined principles and tenets – principles that provide the unity and the synergy of power. Be it in the form of millions of musical notes that cast a magic spell, or the control of our body and mind to lead us to greater heights. These do lead us to the path of happiness... utter bliss. These have no geographic barriers and transcend across all nations and culture. Larsen and Toubro Limited, India’s largest engineering and construction major recognizes and cherishes these Tenets and Principles that live beyond time. Principles and Values that never change but get to redefine its relevance within modern times, thereby making it stay for ever - as a classic beyond time and ages. BRIEF SUMMARY:

Sruti

Shrutis				12-TET Notes
Name	Ratio	Cents	Frequency (Hz)	Name	Frequency (Hz)
Kṣobhinī	1	0	261.6256	C	261.6256
Tīvrā	256/243	90	275.6220	C♯	277.1826
Kumudvatī	16/15	112	279.0673
Mandā	10/9	182	290.6951	D	293.6648
Chandovatī	9/8	203	294.3288
Dayāvatī	32/27	294	310.0747	D♯	311.1270
Ranjanī	6/5	316	313.9507
Raktikā	5/4	386	327.0319	E	329.6275
Raudrī	81/64	407	331.1198
Krodhā	4/3	498	348.8341	F	349.2282
Vajrikā	27/20	519	353.1945
Prasāriṇī	45/32	590	367.9109	F♯	369.9944
Prīti	729/512	612	372.5098
Mārjanī	3/2	702	392.4383	G	391.9954
Kṣiti	128/81	792	413.4330	G♯	415.3047
Raktā	8/5	814	418.6009
Sandīpanī	5/3	884	436.0426	A	440.0000
Ālāpinī	27/16	906	441.4931
Madantī	16/9	996	465.1121	A♯	466.1638
Rohiṇī	9/5	1017	470.9260
Ramyā	15/8	1088	490.5479	B	493.8833
Ugrā	243/128	1110	496.6798
Kṣobhinī	2	1200	523.2511	C	523.2511

  

                                   Śruti commonly refers to musical pitch. It is the approximate equivalent of a tonic (or less precisely a key) in Western music; it is the note from which all the others are derived. It is also used in the sense of graded pitches in an octave. While there are an infinite number of sounds falling within a scale (or raga) in Carnatic music, the number that can be distinguished by auditory perception is twenty-two (although over the years, several of them have converged). In this sense, while sruti is determined by auditory perception, it is also an expression in the listener's mind.

Swara

 The swaras in Carnatic music are slightly different in the twelve-note system. There are three types each of Rishabha, Gandhara, Dhaivatha and Nishadha. There are two types of Madhyama, while Panchama and Shadja are invariant.

Position	Swara	Short name	Notation	Mnemonic
1	Shadja	Sa	S	sa
2	Shuddha Rishabha	Ri	R1	ra
3	Chathusruthi Rishabha	Ri	R2	ri
3	Shuddha Gandhara	Ga	G1	ga
4	Shatsruthi Rishabha	Ri	R3	ru
4	Sadharana Gandhara	Ga	G2	gi
5	Anthara Gandhara	Ga	G3	gu
6	Shuddha Madhyama	Ma	M1	ma
7	Prati Madhyama	Ma	M2	mi
8	Panchama	Pa	P	pa
9	Shuddha Dhaivatha	Dha	D1	dha
10	Chathusruthi Dhaivatha	Dha	D2	dhi
10	Shuddha Nishadha	Ni	N1	na
11	Shatsruthi Dhaivatha	Dha	D3	dhu
11	Kaisiki Nishadha	Ni	N2	ni
12	Kakali Nishadha	Ni	N3	nu

            As you can see above, Chathusruthi Rishabha and Shuddha Gandhara share the same pitch (3rd key/ position). Hence if C is chosen as Shadja, D would be both Chathusruthi Rishabha and Shuddha Gandhara. Hence they will not occur in same raga together. Similarly for two swaras each at notes 4, 10 and 11.

Swara refers to a type of musical sound that is a single note, which defines a relative (higher or lower) position of a note, rather than a defined frequency.[22] Swaras also refer to the solfege of Carnatic music, which consist of seven notes, "sa-ri-ga-ma-pa-da-ni" (compare with the Hindustani sargam: sa-re-ga-ma-pa-dha-ni or Western do-re-mi-fa-so-la-ti). These names are abbreviations of the longer names shadja, rishabha, gandhara, madhyama, panchama, dhaivata and nishada. Unlike other music systems, every member of the solfege (called a swara) has three variants. The exceptions are the drone notes, shadja and panchama (also known as the tonic and the dominant), which have only one form; and madhyama (the subdominant), which has two forms. A 7th century stone inscription in Kudumiyan Malai[24] in Tamil Nadu shows vowel changes to solfege symbols with ra, ri, ru etc. to denote the higher quarter-tones. In one scale, or raga, there is usually only one variant of each note present. The exceptions exist in "light" ragas, in which, for artistic effect, there may be two, one ascending (in the arohanam) and another descending (in the avarohanam).

Raga system Raga Shree recital to Krishna and Radha, Ragamala paintings, 19th century

Carnatic Swara Carnatic Notation Hindustani Swara Hindustani Notation Western E.T. Sa S Sa S C Shuddha Ri R1 Komal Re r D♭ Chatusruti Ri R2 Shuddha Re R D Shatsruti Ri R3 D♯ Shuddha Ga G1 D Sadharana Ga G2 Komal G g E♭ Antara Ga G3 Shuddha Ga G E Shuddha Ma M1 Shuddha Ma M F Prati Ma M2 Teevra Ma M+ F♯ Pa P Pa P G Shuddha Dha D1 Komal Dha d A♭ Chatusruti Dha D2 Shuddha Dha D A Shatsruti Dha D3 A♯ Shuddha Ni N1 A Kaisika Ni N2 Komal Ni n B♭ Kakali Ni N3 Shuddha Ni N B                             A raga in Carnatic music prescribes a set of rules for building a melody - very similar to the Western concept of mode. It specifies rules for movements up (aarohanam) and down (avarohanam), the scale of which notes should figure more and which notes should be used more sparingly, which notes may be sung with gamaka (ornamentation), which phrases should be used or avoided, and so on. In effect, it is a series of obligatory musical events which must be observed, either absolutely or with a particular frequency. In Carnatic music, the sampoorna ragas (those with all seven notes in their scales) are classified into a system called the melakarta, which groups them according to the kinds of notes that they have. There are seventy-two melakarta ragas, thirty six of whose madhyama (subdominant) is sadharana (perfect fourth from the tonic), the remaining thirty-six of whose madhyama (subdominant) is prati (an augmented fourth from the tonic). The ragas are grouped into sets of six, called chakras ("wheels", though actually segments in the conventional representation) grouped according to the supertonic and mediant scale degrees. There is a system known as the katapayadi sankhya to determine the names of melakarta ragas. Ragas may be divided into two classes: janaka ragas (i.e. melakarta or parent ragas) and janya ragas (descendant ragas of a particular janaka raga). Janya ragas are themselves subclassified into various categories. Tala system Tala refers to the beat set for a particular composition (a measure of time). Talas have cycles of a defined number of beats and rarely change within a song. They have specific components, which in combinations can give rise to the variety to exist (over 108), allowing different compositions to have different rhythms. Carnatic music singers usually keep the beat by moving their hands up and down in specified patterns, and using their fingers simultaneously to keep time. Tala is formed with three basic parts (called angas) which are laghu, dhrtam, and anudhrtam, though complex talas may have other parts like plutam, guru, and kaakapaadam. There are seven basic tala groups which can be formed from the laghu, dhrtam, and anudhrtam: Dhruva tala Matya tala Rupaka tala Jhampa tala Triputa tala Ata tala Eka tala A laghu has five variants (called jaathis) based on the counting pattern. Five jaathis times seven tala groups gives thirty-five basic talas, although use of other angas results in a total of 108 talas. Nadai The number of maatras in an akshara is called the nadai. This number can be 3, 4, 5, 7 or 9, and take the same name as the jatis. The default nadai is Chatusram: Nadai Maatras Phonetic representation of beats Tisra 3 Tha Ki Ta Chatusra 4 Tha Ka Dhi Mi Khanda 5 Tha Ka Tha Ki Ta Misra 7 Tha Ki Ta Tha Ka Dhi Mi Sankeerna 9 Tha Ka Dhi Mi Tha Ka Tha Ki Ta Eduppu Ela or Start point Compositions do not always begin on the first beat of the tala: it may be offset by a certain number of matras or aksharas or combination of both to suit the words of the composition. The word Talli, used to describe this offset, is from Tamil and literally means "shift". A composition may also start on one of the last few matras of the previous avartanam. This is called Ateeta Eduppu. Taal in Hindustani Music Taals have a vocalised and therefore recordable form wherein individual beats are expressed as phonetic representations of various strokes played upon the tabla. The first beat of any taal, called sam (pronounced as the English word 'sum' and meaning even or equal, archaically meaning nil) is denoted with an 'X'. The first beat is always the most important and heavily emphasised. It is also the point of resolution in the rhythm. A soloist has to sound an important note of the raag there, and the percussionist's and soloist's phrases culminate at that point. A North Indian classical dance composition must end on the sam. The beats of a taal are divided into groups known as vibhaags, the first beat of each vibhaag usually being accented. It is this that gives the taal its unique texture. For example, Rupak taal consists of 7 beats while the related Dhamar taal consists of 14 beats. The spacing of the vibhaag accents makes them distinct, otherwise one avartan of Dhamar would be indistinguishable from two of Rupak or vice versa. The first beat of any vibhaag is accompanied by a clap of the hands when reciting the taal and therefore is known as tali (or hand clap). Furthermore, taals have a low point, known as khali (empty), which is always the first beat of a particular vibhaag, denoted in written form with '0' (zero). The khaal vibhaag has no beats on the bayan, i.e. no bass beats this can be seen as a way to enforce the balance between the usage of heavy (bass dominated) and fine (treble) beats or more simply it can be thought of another mnemonic to keep track of the rhythmic cycle (in addition to Sam). In recitation the Khaali vibhaag is indicated with a sideways wave of the dominant clapping hand (usually the right) or the placing of the back of the hand upon the base hand's palm in lieu of a clap making an "empty/nil" sound. The khali is played with a stressed syllable that can easily be picked out from the surrounding beats. Hindustani Taals are typically played on tabla or pakhavaj. The specific strokes and the sound they produce are known as bols. Each bol has its own name that can be vocalized as well as written. Examples of bols may be heard in External Links below. The beats following the first beat of each vibhaag are indicated with digits that are greater than 0, 'X' representing the first beat - Sam, the '0' Khali (empty clap) and each number an individual consecutive beat). Rupak, almost uniquely, begins with the khali on Sam. Some rare taals even contain a "half-beat". For example, Dharami is an 11 1/2 beat cycle where the final "Ka" only occupies half the time of the other beats. Also note, this taal's 6th beat does not have a played syllable - in western terms it is a "rest". Common Hindustani taals Some taals, for example Dhamaar, Ek, Jhoomra and Chau talas, lend themselves better to slow and medium tempos. Others flourish at faster speeds, like Jhap or Rupak talas. Trital or Teental is one of the most popular, since it is as aesthetic at slower tempos as it is at faster speeds. Various Gharanas (literally "Houses" which can be inferred to be "styles" - basically styles of the same art with cultivated traditional variances) also have their own preferences. For example, the Kirana Gharana uses Ektaal more frequently for Vilambit Khayal while the Jaipur Gharana uses Trital. Jaipur Gharana is also known to use Ada Trital, a variation of Trital for transitioning from Vilambit to Drut laey. There are many taals in Hindustani music, some of the more popular ones are: Name Beats Division Vibhaga Tintal (or Trital or Teental) 16 4+4+4+4 X 2 0 3 Jhoomra 14 3+4+3+4 X 2 0 3 Tilwada 16 4+4+4+4 X 2 0 3 Dhamar 14 5+2+3+4 X 2 0 3 Ektal and Chautal 12 2+2+2+2+2+2 X 0 2 0 3 4 Jhaptal and Jhampa 10 2+3+2+3 X 2 0 3 Keherwa 8 4+4 Roopak 7 3+2+2 X 2 3 Dadra (or Dhadra) 6 3+3 X 2 Additional Talas Rarer Hindustani talas Name Beats Division Vibhaga Adachoutal 14 2+2+2+2+2+2+2 X 2 0 3 0 4 0 Brahmtal 28 2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2 X 0 2 3 0 4 5 6 0 7 8 9 10 0 Dipchandi 14 3+4+3+4 X 2 0 3 Shikar 17 6+6+2+3 X 0 3 4 Sultal 10 2+2+2+2+2 x 0 2 3 0 refers to the beat set for a particular composition (a measure of time). Talas have cycles of a defined number of beats and rarely change within a song. They have specific components, which in combinations can give rise to the variety to exist (over 108), allowing different compositions to have different rhythms. Carnatic music singers usually keep the beat by moving their hands up and down in specified patterns, and using their fingers simultaneously to keep time. Tala is formed with three basic parts (called angas) which are laghu, dhrtam, and anudhrtam, though complex talas may have other parts like plutam, guru, and kaakapaadam. There are seven basic tala groups which can be formed from the laghu, dhrtam, and anudhrtam: Dhruva tala Matya tala Rupaka tala Jhampa tala Triputa tala Ata tala Eka tala A laghu has five variants (called jaathis) based on the counting pattern. Five jaathis times seven tala groups gives thirty-five basic talas, although use of other angas results in a total of 108 talas.

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Golden Informations

MUSIC FESTIVAL

Saint Thyagaraja is one of the pioneers of Carnatic Music. Sri Thyagaraja Music festival is celebrated every year on the day the saint attained Samadhi, as a mark of respect for his contributions to the world of Carnatic Music.  The main celebration occurs in Thiruvaiyaru on the banks of river Cauveri, located in Tamil Nadu, India, the place where the Saint spent most of his lifetime.
Carnatic music that we know today wouldn't be this rich without the contributions of  other composers namely Syama Sastri and Muthuswami Dikshatar. These composers together are called the Trinities. Although, Thyagaraja ArAdhanA started in Thiruvaiyaru to celebrate the Great life of Thyagaraja, it is now celebrated throughout the world as a tribute to the life and music of the Trinities.

Sri Thyagaraja (1767 - 1847)
Saint Thyagaraja was born on 4th May 1767 to Kakarla Ramabrahamam and Seethamma in Thanjavur district of Tamilanadu. He was proficient in both Telugu, his mother tongue and Sanskrit. He started his musical training under Sonti Venkataramanayya, a noted music scholar in the court of Thanjavur king. He composed his first musical composition "Namo Namo Raghavaya" at the age of 13. Saint Thyagaraja was a very spiritual devotee of Lord Rama, he regarded music as a way to experience the love of God. He is remembered both for his devotion and the bhāva (‘emotion’) of his krithi, a song form consisting of pallavi, (the first section of a song) anupallavi (a rhyming section that follows the pallavi) and caranam (a sung stanza; serves as a refrain for several passages of the composition). The Saint is well known for his five compositions collectively called as Pancharathna Kritis (five gems) composed in five different ragas. His compositions always include his signature "Thyagaraja" in them.



Sri Syama Sastri (1762 - 1827)
       
Syama Sastri was born on April 2nd 1762 to Viswanatha Iyer and Vengalakshmi. He did not have any musical family background. He learnt Telugu and Sanskrit from his father. His first music teacher Sangeeta Swami taught few rare treatises and theoretical knowledge of the music in a short span of four months. He continued his music education under Paccimiriyam Adiyappayya, a court musician under Tanjavur King. Devotion was the basis of his music and he worshiped Goddess Kamakashi. His style is neither simple as that of Thyagaraja nor difficult as that of Muthuswami Dikshitar. He is well known for his use of tala (beat). His most famous compositions include the nine krithis, Navaratnamālikā, in praise of the Goddess Madura Meenakshi and his eighteen krithis in praise of Goddess Kamakshi. His compositions always have his signature of "Shyama Krishna" in them.




Sri Muthuswami Dikshatar (1775-1835)
He was born in 1775 in a musical family to Ramaswami Dikshitar and Subbamma. He received his initial music training from his father and later under Chidambaranatha Yogi. He is a well-versed Veena player and influence of his instrumental capabilities are often seen in his compositions. He composed majority of his kritis in Sanskrit unlike the other two composers who used Telugu predominantly. He is well known for originality of his compositions and structure. He is credited with composing in all the 72 melakarta ragas. His famous compositions include Navagraha Kriti and Ragamalika. He has also set songs to western tunes. His pen name "Guruguha" is engraved in his kritis.

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Music Handbook

ONLINE DICTIONARY

 A

 

Abhyasa	Practise
Abhyasa Gana	A musical form intended for practise.
Achala swara	Also known as Prakruti swara, it means a fixed note without any variables or ornamentations. The two fixed notes in Carnatic music are Shadja (Sa) and Panchama (Pa).
Adhara shadja	It is the Shadja (Sa) of the middle octave and is considered the fundamental note (tonic note) upon which melody is built. It remains fixed throughout the concert.
Adi tala	One of the most popular talas in Carnatic music, it consists of eight beats (a laghu + 2 dhrutams). It is technically known as Chaturasra jati Triputa tala.
Ahobala	The author of the treatise Sangita Parijata, who lived in the seventeenth century. He was the first one to calibrate the value of swaras in terms of the lengths of stretched strings.
Akara-Sadhakam	Vocal practice, employing only the sound aaa. This is done as part of the voice-culture exercises and results in richness of tone, timbre, clarity and strength.
Akshara-kala	Sanskrit term that denotes one time unit.
Alankara	Literally, decoration. Embellishing features that adorn a Raga. The word is also used to denote the basic scale-exercises prescribed for the beginning student.
Alapana	The development of a raga through improvisation to reveal the form of the raga within the set boundaries.
Anagata	Refers to the take-off point (Eduppu), when the composition starts before the downbeat of a rhythmic cycle. Also see Atita.
Anahata Nada	Sanskrit term for the sound (Nada) that is not heard except in the heart. It is the opposite of Ahata Nada, which is the heard sound.
Andolana	Sanskrit word for one of the ten Gamakas (ornamentations) mentioned in the text, Sangeeta Makaranda. It consists of a long amplitude vibrato that bends the note in relatively quick succession but not at a speed that would make the sound feel like a vibrato. It produces a specific stress and emotional quality in the note.
Anga	Literally, a limb or a part. In one context, it refers to the two tetrachords – the lower or the Poorvanga and the upper or the Uttaranga. It could also denote one of the divisions of musical time (Tala). There are six Angas in Talas -Druta, Anudhruta, Guru, Laghu, Pluta, and Kakapada
Antara Gandhara	The perfect third (in Western music, E – counting from C), or the Mi interval of the solfage. This corresponds to the fifth harmonic note with a frequency ratio of 5/4. Also see Anunada. In the Hindustani system, this note is called Suddha Gandhara.
Anubandha	The final and concluding section of an Alapana.
Anubhava	Experience
Anudhrutam	One of the Angas used in reckoning Tala. It is denoted by the symbol “U”. It consists of one beat, of unit measure.
Anumandra Sthayi	The second octave range below the Shadja (tonic note). The word Anumandra also refers to the correspondingly tuned string, in instruments like Vina and Chitravina.
Anunada	The name given to the hushed Gandhara that is heard when the Mandra string of a tambura is tuned to the bass tonic. This note arises from the fifth harmonic. It is also called Swayambhu Gandhara.
Anupallavi	The second section of a Kriti or a Padam in Carnatic music. It can be regarded as the equivalent of the Antara in a Hindustani bandish. Its length is usually either the same as or twice that of the Pallavi.
Anusarani	The second of the two middle strings of the Tambura, which are both tuned to the tonic note or the Shadja. When the Sarani, the main string (closest to the Panchama string of the Tambura), and the Anusarani are perfectly tuned, the vibration of one string sets the other into sympathetic vibration, and a resonant sound is heard.
Anuswara	A subtle melodic nuance employed in Carnatic music.
Anuvadi	A note that is neither the Vadi nor the Samvadi note of a Raga, but is still not in dissonance with either. Hence, it is not the Vivadi note either. All ragas have two pivotal Swaras, which are the Vadi and Samvadi notes, while the other Swaras are neither. Among these, the notes that are not dissonant are called the Anuvadi Swaras.
Apaswara	A note with a pitch that is poorly focused (false note), or out of tune with respect to the ideal and true pitch (off-key note). It has a jarring effect on the ears.
Apoorva Ragas	Uncommon, or rare Ragas.
Arangetram	Literally, ascending the stage - The debut performance of a musician, dancer, or actor, before an invited audience.
Archika	Recitation in one fixed note. This is indicated for some passages of the Rig-Veda, where the entire hymn is to be recited in one note.
Aroha (Arohana)	A series of notes in the ascending order of pitch.
Arohana-Avarohana	The term commonly used to describe the scale, or the ascending and descending order of notes of a Raga, the barest skeleton of its structure. See also Avaroha (Avarohana).
Ashtapadi	Literally, eight feet. This is the name of the well-known poetic compositions of Jayadeva, in the Gita Govinda. There are twenty-six Ashtapadis in total.
Ata Tala	One of the seven basic Talas, consisting of 2 Laghus and 2 drutams.
Ati Tara sthayi	The second octave range above the Shadja. It is the octave higher than the Tara Sthayi.
Atita	Refers to the take-off point (Eduppu), when the composition starts after the downbeat of a rhythmic cycle. See also Anagata.
Audava	Literally, five – used with respect to an Aroha or an Avaroha that uses only five notes.
Audava-Audava	A Raga that has five notes each in ascent and descent. Examples - Hamsadhwani, Mohanam.
Audava-Sampoorna	A Raga that has only five notes in the ascent but a complete set of seven notes in the descent. See also Sampoorna.
Audava-Sampoorna	A Raga with five notes in the ascent and six in the descent. Also see Shadava.
Avanaddha Vadya	Instruments covered with stretched skin, e.g. Mridangam.
Avaroha (Avarohana)	The descending scale of notes of a Raga. Also see Aroha (Arohana).
Avartana	Literally, one cycle. In Carnatic music, used with respect to one rhythmic cycle of the Tala.

B


   

Bahutva	One of the Trayodasa Lakshanas (thirteen characteristics) of a Raga. It refers to those Prayogas that can be used many times without diminution of significance. There are two varieties - the Abhyasa Bahutva, in which a select group of notes can be used repeatedly; and the Alanghana Bahutva, in which one note is used with premeditation and care and then stressed appropriately.
Bakura	A wind instrument mentioned in the Rig-Veda.
Bana	Literally, arrow. Denotes the number five, because of the five arrows associated with the God of Love. In Carnatic music, refers to the fifth out of the twelve Chakras in the 72 Melakarta system, comprising the Melas numbered 25-30.
Bani	The style of singing or playing characterised by certain special qualities of the performer. Its usage is similar to the word Gharana in Hindustani music.
Bari	The longer variety of Nagaswaram, a wind instrument, as contrasted with the shorter variety called Timiri. The Bari has a lower pitch when compared to the Timiri. Also see Nagaswaram.
Bass bar	A piece of wood, attached under the bridge, on the inside of bowed instruments like the viola, the violin, the cello, and the double bass. It supports the pressure on the bridge of the violin and smoothes out the notes, distributing the vibrations of the strings equally across the bridge.
Bhagavata Goshti	A group of singers singing sacred songs in South India.
Bhajan	A devotional song in praise of a god or goddess.
Bhakti	Devotion.
Bharata	The illustrious author of the Sanskrit text, Natya Shastra, the most ancient treatise dealing with the science of dramaturgy and music. The name is also believed to be an acronym, derived from the words,  'Bhava', ‘Raga' and ‘Tala’.
Bhasha	One of the Margi Ragas of which there are six in ancient music Sarngadeva mentions them in his Sangita Ratnakara.
Bhashanga Raga	A derived scale where one or more foreign notes are used.
Bhatkhande, Vishnu Narayan (1860-1936)	One of the greatest musicologists of recent times. He formulated the 10 Thaat system of Hindustani music, in analogy with the 72 Melakarta scheme of Carnatic music.
Bhava	A feeling or emotion of aesthetics, without which the very soul of expression in music would be lost.
Bow	A stick strung with horsehair that is used to play bowed instruments like the Sarangi and the Violin.
Brahma	The Creator, one of the celestial Trinity in Hinduism. There are believed to be nine cycles of creation, and hence, the word is used to denote the number nine. In Carnatic music, refers to the ninth out of twelve Chakras in the 72 Melakarta system, comprising the Melas 49-54.
Bridge	The piece of wood in a stringed instrument on which the strings are stretched.
Brihaddesi	A musical treatise of the fifth century by Matanga. The Jatis of the time of Bharata had become outdated in Matanga's time, and Ragas had taken their place. Brihaddesi gives a lucid account of Raga classification, such as Suddha, Chhayalaga, Sankirna and so on. There is a section on Nadotpatti or the origin of Nada, Sruti, Swara Murchhana, Varna, Alankara, Giti, Jati, Raga, Bhasha Prabandha etc. It is also said to have had a chapter on musical instruments which is now lost.

C        Chakra   Literally, wheel or cycle. In Carnatic music, the word refers to the 12 sub-cycles of the 72 Melakarta system.   Chapu Tala   A popular Tala used in concerts. A group of syncopated rhythmic cycles not belonging to the systems of 7, 35, or 175 Talas. There are two varieties of Chapu tala - Misra, of seven counts and Khanda of five counts.   ChapuTol   The inner layer of the right drumhead of the Mridangam.   Charanam   The concluding (third) part of any composition or Kriti in the Carnatic tradition.   Chatura Kallinatha   15th century author of the commentary named Kalanidhi on the Sangeeta Ratnakara.   Chaturasra   One of the five Jatis, with four counts.   Chaturasra Laghu   The variety of Laghu that consists of a beat followed by three finger counts, thus making for four counts (Akshara-kalas).   Chaturdandi Prakasika   A famous treatise written by Venkatamakhi, around the year 1635, with a detailed description of the Melakarta organization. The treatise is in Sanskrit and also handles subjects like Veena, Sruti, Swara, Mela, Raga, Alapa, Laya, Prabandha, Gitaprabandha and so on. The organization of seventy-two Melakartas is a remarkable arrangement of musical scales and is quite unique. Venkatamakhi does not give the total system any detailed nomenclature. He merely leaves them classified in seventy-two scales. The later Kanakambari nomenclature kept the Mela and the Raga apart. This began to be used not earlier than 1735.   Chatusruti Rishabha (R2)   The perfect major second, with a frequency ratio of 9/8. The term is used only in Carnatic music. In Hindustani music, this note is called the Suddha Rishabha.   Chitravina   A stringed instrument shapted like the Vina, but with no frets. It requires the player to have a perfect musical ear. Since there are no frets, there is no lateral deflection of the strings as in the Vina. Instead, a solid cylinder (Gottu) is held in the left hand, and used to slide over the strings. The instrument needs to be tuned to a higher tension, and consequently, a higher pitch, than the Vina. There are six main strings, three Tala strings and twelve sympathetic vibration strings. As in the Vina, the main playing strings are plucked downwards and the Tala strings are plucked upwards. See also Gotu and Gotuvadyam.   Chittaswara   A passage of set Swara patterns with a highly sonorous appeal, attached to a Kriti, sung after the Anupallavi and the Charanam. These Swara passages are usually composed by the composer of the Kriti. There are a few instances when such passages have been appended to some Kritis by later composers.   Clarinet   A woodwind instrument with a two and a half octave range. It has a single reed with keys.   Cymbals   A percussion instrument made from bell metal or brass, used for keeping Tala. It consists of a pair of round discs which, when struck together, is used in nagaswaram concerts, Bhajan singing and congregational music. D      Daivata or Da   The sixth swara (note) in the octave.   Damaru   An hour-glass-shaped drum, with parchment leather on its two faces. It is usually depicted in the hands of the dancing Nataraja, a form of Siva. The knotted ends of two strings tied at the narrow center of the drum strike the two heads, to produce a rhythmic sound. Damaru is found in all parts of India.   Dasavatara   The ten Avataras or incarnations of Vishnu. The Carnatic composers like Jayadeva, Purandara Dasa and Tyagaraja have considered Buddha also as an incarnation of Vishnu. So the ten Avataras are Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narashimha, Vamana, Parasurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha and Kalki.   Dasavatara Mangalam   A Mangalam song composed by Purandara Dasa.   Dasavatara Ragamalika   The well-known Swati Tirunal composition, 'Kamalajasya', in ten Ragas, sung in the sequence - Mohanam, Bilahari, Dhanyasi, Saranga, Madhyamavati, Atana, Natakurunji, Darbar, Anandabhairavi, and Sowrashtra.   Dasavidha Gamaka   The ten kinds of Gamakas or movements, counted in different ways. One well-known list consists of Arohanam, Avarohanam, Dhalu, Sphurita, Kampita, Ahata, Pratyahata, Tripuchha, Andola and Murchana.   Dattila   Author of the fourth century treatise called Dattilam.   Desi   Belonging to the country (desa). This term denoted the folk music that was prevalent till the 12th century.   Dhatu   The melodic aspect of a musical composition.   Dhrutam   One of the Angas used in reckoning Tala, executed by a clap and a wave. The symbol used is 0.   Dhruva Tala   The first of the seven basic Talas, consisting of one Laghu, one Dhrutam and two Laghus. Represented by the symbol used is 1011.   Dhwani   A word that means sound.   Dirgha   Long - a note/syllable lasting at least two units of time, as opposed to a Hrasva, which lasts only for one unit beat of time.   Disi   Literally direction, of which there are ten (eight plus up and down). Hence the word denoted the number ten, and is the name of the tenth Chakra of the Melakarta system.   Divya Prabhandam   The name given to a group of 4000 verses composed by the twelve south Indian Vaishnava saints. These are in the form of Slokas. Divyanama Kirtana   Songs sung in praise of God. It is intended for congregational singing and consists of one Pallavi and many Charanams. In most cases, all the passages are sung to the same tune, whether it is the Pallavi or Charanam. This is called the Eka Dhatu Divyanama Kirtana, e.g. ‘Sri Rama Jayarama’ in Yadukulakambodhi, composed by Tyagaraja.   Dravidians   The people indigenous to the southern part of India.   Durbala Swaras Those notes in a Raga that are used feebly, without stress or obvious repetition.   Dvadasha Chakras   The twelve Chakras into which the 72 Melakartas are arranged. Each of these Chakras is made up of six Melas, and is named using a mnemonic system. Thus, the twelve Chakras are, Indu (moon – one), Netra (eyes – two), Agni (fire – the three fires of the maintained by a sacrificer), Veda (the scriptural texts, which are four in number), Bana (arrow –the five arrows of Cupid), Rutu (seasons – six), Rishi (sages – seven), Vasu (a class of gods, eight in number), Brahma (the creator, one for each of nine cycles of creation), Disi (direction – ten), Rudra (a class of gods, eleven in number) and Aditya (a class of gods, twelve in number). E     Eduppu   A Tamil word, which means the point at which the music begins on Tala cycle. In the Sama Eduppu, the music begins with the Tala. Atita Eduppu is when the music begins after the Tala and the Anagata Eduppu is when the Tala begins before the music.   Eka Tala   The seventh of the basic seven Talas consisting of only one Laghu. The symbol is 1.   Equal Temperament   A system of tuning adopted for keyboard instruments like the Piano. The octave is divided into twelve equal semitones. The Indian scale is based on what is called the just intonation, based on the natural untempered scale.   Ettayapuram   An important place for music in South India. Composers like Muthuswami Dikshitar, Baluswami Dikshitar and Subbarama Dikshitar are associated with this place. The Sangeeta Sampradaya Pradarshini was published by the Ettayapuram Samasthanam in 1904. Ettayapuram is also the birthplace of the Tamil poet, Subrahmanya Bharati.   Ettukada Pallavi   Another name for the Charanam in a Varnam.

F



   

F-holes	The sound holes of the violin and the cello. The holes look like the letter ‘F’ in shape.
Fiddle	The colloquial name for the Violin.
Finger holes	The holes of a wind instrument, which are stopped either with fingers or by keys.
Fingerboard	The stem of a stringed instrument, over which the strings pass and which are pressed by the fingers to produce musical notes. The fingerboard may be plain, as in the Violin and Sarod, or fretted, as in the Veena and Sitar.
Fingering	The technique of the use of fingers in any musical instrument.
Flute	A wind instrument, considered a divine one, on account of its associations with Lord Krishna. It is among the oldest instruments known in India and consists of a hollow bamboo cylinder with finger holes and a blowhole. The Indian flute is a simple cylindrical tube of bamboo, one end closed, about fourteen or fifteen inches long, unlike the European flute, which is made usually from wood or metal. The European flute has keys whereas the Indian flute has no keys.
Folk music	The music of the masses of the nation. The Indian folk musical tradition is very close to its classical inheritance. Besides being bewilderingly rich and varied in a country with a single culture, spread across highly varied lifestyles and geographical and ethnic traditions, the folk song and dance tradition form a bottomless mine of rich and creative vitality. There is a folk song associated with practically every event in life. Rites of passage, festivals and seasons - each of these has a distinctive form of music associated with them.
Fundamental Note	The basic vibration frequency of a plucked string.

G



  

Gadya	Prose, as opposed to Padya, which is verse. In a musical composition, the lyrics may be prose or verse or a mixture of both (Gadya-Padya).
Gamaka	The generic nomenclature for all melodic graces and ornamentations that arise out of musical movement. In the Carnatic tradition the Gamaka is an essential part of the melodic structure. It is rare therefore that in this tradition you hear a Swara unadorned and plain. In Carnatic music, the use of Gamaka is one of the chief identifying features of the Ragas, and cannot be omitted or reduced at will. In Hindustani music even the tonal characteristic can identify the raga without any Gamaka whatever. In this sense, Hindustani music is somewhat plainer and less ornamented as compared to Carnatic music. Various commentators have described several numbers and kinds of Gamakas.
Gana Bhaskara	Telugu work by K.V.Srinivasa Iyengar, published in 1934.
Gana Krama	The method and order style of singing various parts of a composition. The Gita is sung right through, without repeating any line. In the Kriti, each Sangati is sung twice. The Anupallavi is sung after the Pallavi and the Charanam follows the Anupallavi.
Gandhara or Ga	The third Swara in the octave.
Gandharva Veda	The branch of the Veda that deals with music. It is an Upa Veda or a subsidiary Veda along with Ayurveda (medicine), Dhanur Veda (military science) and Artha Shastra (political science).
Gandharvas	Celestial musicians mentioned in the Indian Puranas (mythological texts).
Gati	Tempo of a musical piece - the speed and the gait of a composition.
Gatra Veena	Metaphorical term for the human voice. It is the Veena of the Gatra, thus treating the body as a natural musical instrument.
Gavantu	The ledge of ivory that separates the body of the Veena from its stem.
Gayaka	Singer.
Gayaki	Instrumental style that views vocal music as the ideal, and mimics the voice.
Getti Melam	A colloquial term, indicating vigorous, loud music played by a group of musicians on a Nagaswaram and Tavil ensemble. This is played at the moment the Mangalsutra is tied round the neck of a bride when getting married as per the Indian Hindu custom.
Ghana Raga Pancharatnam	A set of popular Tyagaraja compositions, consisting of ‘Jagadananda Karaka‘ in Nattai, ‘Dudukugala’ in Gowla, ‘Sadhinchane’ in Arabhi, ‘Kanakana Ruchira’ in Varali and Endaro mahanubhavulu’ in Sri. All these compositions are in Adi Tala and each of the Kritis has multiple Charanams, which are sung as Swara-Sahitya.
Ghana Ragamalika Varna	A Varna in which the Ghana Ragas are strung together in a Ragamalika fashion. Veena Kuppayyar composed one such piece.
Ghana Ragas	Ragas whose principal characteristics are easily revealed, e.g. Arabhi, Nattai, Varali, Sri and Gowla.
Ghana vadya	Percussion instruments made of metals.
Gharana	A school or style of singing in Hindustani music, usually named after the place of origin, e.g. Agra, Jaipur, Gwalior, Patiala etc. Also see Bani.
Ghatam	A pot of specially seasoned clay, used as a percussion instrument in Carnatic music.
Gita	Simple musical composition, first taught to students after basic training in Swara exercises and Alankaras. These are simple melodies in uniform Laya and usually in praise of one of the Hindu Gods. There are two kinds, the Sanchari Gitas, which convey the basic outline of the Raga, and the Lakshana Gitas, in which the lyrics also explicitly describe the characteristics of the Ragas in which they are composed.
Gita govinda	An immortal poetic-cum-musical Sanskrit classic, composed by Jayadeva in the twelfth century. There are twelve chapters in it. Each song contains eight verses or Padas, on account of which these songs are also called the Ashtapadi. There are twenty-four such songs.
Gitanugam	Any instrument that is used as an accompaniment to as singer, e.g., Violin, Sarangi, Harmonium.
Gotu	A cylindrical piece of ebony, bison horn or Teflon, used to slide over the strings of the string instrument Gotuvadyam or Chitravina.
Gotuvadyam	See Chitravina.
Govinda	Author of the Sanskrit treatise Sangraha Chudamani, perhaps the last of the Sanskrit texts on Lakshana. The author lived during the latter part of the eighteenth century. He was associated with the Tanjavur court. The Sangraha Chudamani is available in a modern published version.
Govinda Marar (1798-1843)	A highly gifted musician from Travancore. He invented a seven-stringed tambura, which had two Panchama strings, two Sarani strings, two Anusaranis and one Mandra string tuned to Shadja. He was considered an exponent of singing in Shat-kalas or six speeds.
Graha Bheda	The technique of deriving new scales by shifting the tonic note of an existing scale. For example, if you take the raga Hindolam (Sa Ga Ma Dha Ni Sa), and treat the Ga as if it were a Sa, the resulting scale would be Sa Ri Ma Pa Dha Sa, thus giving the scale of Suddha Saveri. This transformation is based on the simple mathematical relationship between the various notes in the octave.
Guru	One of the six Angas of Tala in Carnatic music. It has two Matras or eight Akshara-kalas. The word Guru also means preceptor, who takes the student from darkness to light.
Guruguha	The Mudra (signature) used by Muthuswami Dikshitar in his compositions.
Gurumurti Sastri, Paidala (c. 18th cent.)	One of the greatest composers of Gitas, after Purandara Dasa.
Guru-Shishya Parampara	The lineage of preceptor and disciple, through which the living tradition is transmitted.

H      Haridasa   A saint who asked Tyagaraja, when he was about eighteen years of age, to recite ‘Rama Nama’ 6-860 million times. It is said that Tyagaraja was able to complete this number in twenty-one years. In the Telugu opera Nowka Charitram, the composer pays homage to this saint who transformed his life.   Harmonics   The higher frequency notes related to the fundamental frequency, produced naturally in all physical vibrations. When a stretched string is plucked, its vibration consists of a combination of its fundamental frequency and a number of integral multiples of the fundamental. This is called the harmonic content of the vibration. The fundamental note would be dominant in the full string vibration If the string is stopped at particular points along its length, e.g. half the length, one-third the length, etc., and then plucked, the sound produced is called an artificial harmonic. These frequencies are called the upper partials or higher harmonics. The corresponding notes are called Swayambhu Swaras, i.e. notes born naturally, of their own accord.   Harmonium   A portable organ-like instrument with bellows, which are pumped using the hands or feet. Its scale is tempered. It is believed that this instrument was brought into India by Western Christian missionaries in the recent past.   Harmony   The overall pleasant awareness of sounds played together in consonant notes. In Western music, the major third and the major fifth are played along with the main note, to get a major chord.   Hechhu Sarani   The name of the highest pitched string of the Tala strings of the Veena.   Heptatonic Scale   A Sampoorna scale, like any of the 72 Melakartas.   Hexatonic scale   Any six-tone or Shadava scale, e.g. Sriranjani.   Hindustani Sangeet   The system of music prevalent in the north of India, as contrasted with the Carnatic system, which has its origins in south India. Both systems of music have as their foundation the concepts of Raga and Tala. Another common point is the fact that both systems have defined the vocally produced note as the yardstick for the Swara, unlike Western music, where the notes have been standardized with respect to the frequency of tuning forks and an equally tempered scale.   Hrasva   Literally, short. A Hrasva note usually has a length of one unit of time. See also Dirgha (antonym). I      Indu   Literally, moon. In Carnatic music, this is the name of the first Chakra in the 72 Melakarta system, comprising the first six Melas.   Interval   The ratio of the frequency of a note to that of a lower note.               J     Jaati   In contemporary Carnatic music, refers to the five kinds of Laghus used in Talas. There are five of these –Chaturasra (4 counts), Tisra (3 counts), Misra (7 counts), Khanda (5 counts) and Sankeerna (9 counts). Thus, the application of these five kinds to the 7 basic Talas results in 35 Tala system. In the Natya Sastra, the term is used as a melodic attribute, but this had already gone out of vogue during the time of Matanga. See also Brihaddesi.   Jalatarangam   Literally, water waves. Name of a musical instrument, consisting of china cups filled to varying levels with water. The water level is adjusted to tune each cup to a specific note. The rim of the cup is struck with sticks after tuning, to give a pleasant ringing sound. This is often used in small ensembles and for orchestral support. The dexterity to play this instrument is one of the traditionally enumerated 64 arts.   Janaka Raga   A parent raga. The three conditions for a parent Raga are - it should be Sampoorna in both ascent and descent, employing seven notes; it should not have any zig-zag patterns (Vakratva) in it; and the ascent and descent should use the same set of seven notes. There are 72 Janaka Ragas. See also Melakarta.   Janaka-Janya   The classification of Ragas into parent and derivative ragas, analogous to the genus-species system of classification. See Janaka Ragas and Janya Ragas.   Janta Swaras   A note that is repeated twice, e.g. Sa-Sa, Ri-Ri, Ga-Ga etc. These are part of the scale exercises taught to the beginning student.   Janya Raga   A Raga that is derived from a parent scale, by either omitting notes from the parent scale, or by introducing a zig-zag pattern, or by adding alien notes that are not present in the original parent scale.   Jati   Pronounced with a short a – the syllables used to count rhythmic patterns, e.g. tari kita naka etc.   Jatiswaram   A composition that used only the Sa Ri Ga notation for the notes and rhythmic syllables like tari taka, ta-din-gin-na-tom etc. It has no words, but there are the usual Pallavi, Anupallavi and Charanam divisions. Widely used in dance recitals.   Javali   A Kannada word, meaning an earthy and sensuous erotic song. It is distinguished from the Padams, in which love and erotic sentiment is treated with more gravity. In Javali, love is light, provocative, flippant and sometimes even lewd and bawdy. It is usually set to bright and attractive tunes in well-known Ragas, and sung in medium or slow tempo.   Jew’s Harp   A rhythmic instrument. See Morsing.   Jiva   Literally, life. Also known as Jawari. It is the fine thread that is inserted between the bridge and the strings of the Tambura. The sound texture and quality are enriched by this means, giving the Tambura the enveloping sound that is vital to the performance of music.   Jiva Swara   The note that imparts the central character to the Raga. This could be the same as a Nyasa Swara of the Raga, though not necessarily so.   Jod   In Hindustani music, a rendition of an Alapa with an inbuilt Laya and rendered in the medium tempo. This is performed principally on instruments and in the nom tom alap of dhammar and dhrupad. This is similar to the Tanam singing in Carnatic music.   Jugalbandi   A performance of two instrument players or singers. It spaces out a performance, dividing its progressions in a shared manner. In the Carnatic tradition, this is termed Jodippattu. K   Kutcheri   Concert, or any musical entertainment.   Kutcheri Dharma The duties and obligations, rights and privileges of musicians performing in a concert, its organisers and the audience. This entails everything from dress, mode of address and welcome, to the seating arrangements on the platform. Kakali Nishada   The major seventh note. Called Shuddha Nishada in Hindustani music. In practice, in Carnatic music, the note is often intoned slightly higher than the Suddha Nishada of Hindustani music, and the note is closer to the position of the Shadja.   Kakapadam   One of the six Angas among the musical time measures and has a total of 16 counts.   Kaku   A Swara technique that emphasizes the significant characteristic of a raga. Parsvadeva’s Sangeeta Samaya Sara describes six kinds of Kakus – 1. Raga Kaku is the essential splendour of a raga; 2. Swara Kaku is the embellishment of a Raga through the quality and shading of its Mukhya Swara through Gamakas or mere vocal power; 3.Desa Kaku is the introduction of folk and regional inflections into the Raga, giving it a novel and strange, yet rich form; 4. Anya Raga Kaku is the contrasting quality achieved by introducing Graha Bheda techniques or bhavas of foreign ragas; 5. Kshetra Kaku emphasises all the rules of the Raga in various combinations; 6. Vadya Kaku is the technique of bringing an instrumental quality into the vocal expression of Ragas.   Kala   Pronounced Kalaa, it means art. Pronounced Kaala, it refers to time. Kalahasti   Temple-town near the border of Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh. The name was used as a Mudra by the composer Veena Venkataswami Raju of Kalahasti, in his Tana Varna composition Valachiyunna in Pushpalatika.   Kallinatha   See Chatura Kallinatha.   Kalpanaswara   The creative part of Carnatic music, where the performer sings patterns of solfa notes (swaras) extempore, according to his imagination, but within the boundaries of the Raga.   Kalpita melakarta   The name given to fifty-three out of the seventy-two Melas described by Venkatmakhi. These were purely academic at the time, as they had not been used in compositions until then. The other nineteen were already popular when the classification was carried out. Kalpita Sangita   Composed music, e.g. Kritis and Varnams.   Kampita   See Gamaka.   Kanjira   A tambourine, used as a percussion instrument in concerts.   Katapayadi Sankhya   An ancient Indian system of mnemonics that is used to correlate numbers with words. numbers of words. This was widely used in astrology, musicology, and several other arts and sciences in India. Each letter of the Sanskrit alphabet is associated with a number, as summed up in four key phrases. Kadi Nava – the nine letters, Ka, Kha, Ga, Gha, N(g)a, Cha, Chha, Ja and Jha, are given values from 1 through 9. Similarly, Tadi Nava – the letters beginning with ‘Ta’ and ending in ‘Dha’ are again given values 1 through 9. Padi Panca – the five letters from ‘Pa’ to ‘Ma’ are given values from 1 to 5. Yadi Ashta – the series of eight letters, Ya, Ra, La, Va, Sha, Shha, Sa and Ha have values from 1 through 8. The letters N(j)a and Na represent zero. The names of the 72 Melas are based on this scheme, such that the first two syllables of the name correspond to the Mela number in a reverse fashion. This can be illustrated with an example. Take the Mela Ramapriya. Ra and Ma are the first two syllables. The serial number of ‘Ra’ is two and that of ‘Ma’ is five, so that ra-ma encodes the number 25. The digits in this number are to be reversed, to give the number 52. This is the Melakarta number of Ramapriya.   Kathakalakshepam   A combined word, formed from Katha (story), Kala (time) and Kshepa (spending). It is the art form of passing leisure time through musicalized story-telling. Legends from the Puranas are narrated through songs rendered in a dramatic fashion. The Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and Bhagavatam form the basis of the stories and anecdotes that are sung and recited by performers. Tanjavur Krishna Bhagavatar is described as the father of this art-form, which requires its practitioners to be scholars, musicians and dramatists simultaneously.   Khayal   A word of Persian origin, meaning ‘imagination’. It is believed to have developed out of the Qawwal style of singing and through the period of Amir Khusro became an important part of the Hindustani music tradition. The arrival of the khayal slowly displaced the old Dhrupad style of singing and effected a revolutionary change in the Hindustani music tradition. The structure of the Khayal requires a high order of improvisational skill in the musician at several levels and layers of the Raga. The range and scope of improvisation also covers the whole range of human experience, from the poetic and mystic to the frontiers of quick arithmetic calculation and intellectual exploration.   Koot-taan   A complicated and extensive set of notes in complex figures in a Taan.   Kovur Pancharatna   A set of five Kritis, composed by thy great composer Tyagaraja, in praise of the deity, Sundareswara, in the shrine at Kovur near Madras. These are ‘Sambho Mahadeva’ in raga Pantuvarali, ‘Ee vasudha nivanti’ in Sahana raga, ‘Kori Sevimparare ‘in Karaharapriya, ‘Nammi Vacchina’ in Kalyani and ‘Sundira Varuni’ in Shankarabharanam.   Krama   Order, regularity. Krama Sampoorna means an orderly Arohana and Avarohana without zig-zag patterns and tortuous variations. Shadava Krama indicates a six-note regular scale, and Audava Krama refers to the regularity of the five-note scale.   Krishna   The most well-known God of Hinduism, asociated in music with the Venu or Murali, the divine flute. Hence, he is also called by the name Muralidhara. The pure music ascribed to Lord Krishna is believed to be the essence of Indian music. Composers and musicians have used this figure of Krishna with his flute from the dawn of Indian memory. Krishna appears as the inspiration behind Jayadeva’s Ashtapadis in the Gita Govinda, the songs of Meera, the Bhajans in Brij, and in numerous Thumris and Khayals.   Krishna Leela Tarangini   The longest Sanskrit opera, composed by Narayana Tirtha. It contains 112 cantos. Its origin is in the Bhagavata Purana’s tenth chapter, which begins with the birth of Krishna and ends with the marriage to Rukmini.   Kriti   Literally, composition/work. One of the most highly evolved forms of musical composition in the Carnatic music system. Every composer in the Carnatic School has attempted to compose Kritis and contributed richly to this form of music. Therefore, Kritis form the bulk of musical compositions in Carnatic music today. Unlike the Khayal in Hindustani music, the Kriti is a fully composed piece of music, complete in its architecture and motion. Its value lies not only in its musical content, but also in the lyrical content, the Sahitya. An allied form of composition, the Kirtana, lays much greater stress on the Sahitya than the Kriti. There are three movements – the Pallavi, the Anupallavi and the Charanam. In many such compositions, there are multiple Charanams. The Kritis are ornamented with several technical devices, such as Chitta Swaras, Madhyamakala Sahitya, Swarakshara Sangatis, Solkattu Swaras, Swara Sahitya and so on.   Kriya   A mode of counting time. There are two main kinds of Kriyas, e.g. the Nis-shabda Kriya, which is silent or unvoiced, and the Sa-shabda Kriya, which is voiced by means of a beat.   Kshana   The smallest division of time that can be conceived in a Kala, or between two beats.   Kudimiyamalai   An inscription on a rock face in Pudukottai, giving much information about music. It belongs to the seventh century, and was inscribed by Mahendra Varman, a Pallava king. Except for the incomplete inscriptions available from Titumayam and Pudukottai, the inscription at Kudumiyamalai is unique in all of India. This inscription belongs to the period before Hindustani and Carnatic music took slightly different paths and therefore can be said to belong to both the traditions. It gives brief Sancharas of seven ragas – the Madhyama Grama, the Shadava, the Sadharita, the Panchama, the Kaisika madhyama and the Kaisiki Nishada. The Sancharas are given in four note steps of Taans, in what is known as the Chatushprahara Swaragama Kural   Tamil word, meaning voice. The name of the tone that is equivalent to Shadja, in ancient Tamil music.   Kusa and Lava   Sons of Rama, known as great singers and balladeers. They sang the Ramayana and enthralled the court of their father King Ramachandra of Ayodhya. L     Laghu   One of the six Angas that reckons musical time. It consists of a beat and a variable count of fingers. See also Jati.   Laghu Gotuvadhyam   A small Gotuvadyam, with a short stem and only five strings.   Laghu Vina   A shorter Vina, with five strings, with a range of one and half octaves.   Lakshana   A science or grammar, and refers to the Raga and its characteristics. The Lakshanas include Aroha, Avaroha, Jiva Swaras, Nyasa Swaras, Raga Prayogas, Vishesha Sancharas, subtle Srutis, Rasa and the appropriate time of singing.   Lakshana Gita   See Gita.   Lakshanakara   Sanskrit term for musicologist. He is deemed to know a lot of facts about music and is an authority on it.   Lakshana Prabhanda   A composition in which some laws of music are described in its Sahitya. The Murchhana Karaka Mela Ragamalika is a case in point.   Lakshya Grantha   Treatise on the science of music, with basic notations of compositions.   Langar   A Hindustani word that means anchor. It refers to the metallic ring-like device to the right of the bridge, through which the strings are tied in a Veena or a Chitraveena.   Laya   Literally, merging. In Carnatic music, the term refers to the tempo and indicates the speed and gait of a piece of music in the form of a regularly repeated beat a recognizable speed. Vilambita laya is slow tempo, the Madhya Laya is medium paced and the Druta Laya is fast tempo.   Laya Meettu   Refers to the technique of plucking the Tala strings of the veena. This is a simultaneous upward stoke of the little finger on the three Tala strings.   Linguaphone   An instrument fitted with tongues that vibrate in different Swaras when plucked. The Morsing is an example. Often bamboo wood, bone and metal are used as tongues.   Lithophones   Musical instruments made of stone. There are several varieties of such instruments, including sets of stone pillars that sound various notes from the scale when struck, and certain Mukhaveenas, which are miniature Nagaswarams.   Lochana Kavi   Musicologist from Mithila, who lived towards the end of the 14th century. He is the author of the grantha Raga Tarangini and quotes Vidyapati, the well-known poet of Mithila. Lochana kavi recognized the 22 shruthis and enumerated twelve Thaats. His shuddha scale was Kafi (or Kharaharapriya of Carnatic music). Lohaja   The sound emanating form metal. e.g. the sound produced by cymbals.   Lute   Any stringed instrument, which has a resonator shaped like a pear at one end, and a stem with a fretted fingerboard. The strings are plucked with the fingers. The standard south Indian Veena is a lute. M    Madhyama or Ma   The fourth note of the Indian scale. It is the fa of the solfa of the European scale. (See GRAMA).   Madhyamadi   A raga mentioned in the Sangita Makaranda of Narada, which can be sung at noon. It is an Audava Raga. This seems to have been the earlier name for Madhyamavati.   Madhyama Kala Sahitya   Sections in Carnatic Kritis that are composed at twice the basic tempo. The Madhyama Kala piece usually appears at the end of the Anupallavi or the Charanam or sometimes in both sections. Many Muthuswami Dikshitar compositions include such sections.   Madhya sthayi   Middle octave   Madhya laya Medium tempo. See Laya.   Madhyama Grama   One of the three old scales of which there were three. The other two were the Shadja Grama and the Gandhara Grama. This is only of academic interest today, as the Grama system is no longer in use.   Magudi   A musical instrument used by snake charmers. It is called Punji in North India. This instrument is polyphonous. A bottle gourd attached to a double cane pipe is cut in reeds. While one of the pipes gives the basic tonic, which it produces in a constant drone, the other pipe is able to play the tune. This pipe has finger holes that can be stopped just as in a flute. The wind that enters is blown out through the other end of the bottle gourd. Its sound is melancholy and is normally tuned to the scale of the South Indian Punnagavarali, a kind of Mishra Bilaskhani Todi of Hindustani music. This scale is said to attract serpents. The southern Magudi is unable to produce the Shadja of the higher octave. The North Indian Punji, being longer, is able to produce the upper Shadja.   Meruswami   Nineteenth century musician, Samasthana Vidwan of the state of Travancore. His vocal range is said to have been three and a half octave. Major scale   The principal scale in which Western music is composed. It corresponds to the Shankarabharanam scale of Carnatic music, or the Bilawal scale of Hindustani music.   Makuta Swara   A crowning Swara pattern. It generally denotes the string of Swara passages at the end of each section of a Ragamalika, connecting the previous Raga with the next Raga.   Mandram   The name of the lower octave. Also the name of the lowest pitch string of the Tambura tuned to the lowest tonic of its scale.   Mandra sthayi   Lower octave.   Mandra Sadhana   The vocal training that involves a series of exercises in the Mandra region of the scale. This exercise gives body and resonance to the voice.   Mangalam   An auspicious song of salutation. It is the concluding piece in Carnatic concerts. It is mostly in the Kirtana form and consists of a Pallavi and several Charanams, which are all sung in the same tune.   Mangala Raga   Those ragas that are associated with auspiciousness. Dhanyasi, Asaveri, Vasanta, Saurashtram, Madhyamavati, Sri and Yadukulakambhoji are some of the Mangala Ragas in the Carnatic tradition Mani   Little beads threaded upon the strings of the tanpura which are used to fine-tune the swara.   Manipravala Kriti   A composition in which the lyrics use two or more languages but despite this remain grammatically accurate. Linguists usually compose Manipravala krithis. The Bhairavi composition, ‘Ni sari samaana’ and ‘Tyagara Swami’ in Vacaspati are Manipravala compositions.   Manodharma Sangeeta   Music that is sung extempore - a product of the moment. Manodharma is improvisational music and is produced instantaneously, without much planning or forethought. It has particular significance in Carnatic music, where the improvisational music is overlaid on the firm structure provided by Kritis and other such compositions of the great composers. In Hindustani music, since the compositions are normally short pieces, almost all the performed music is Manodharma. The Alapa, the Taanas, Pallavi exposition, Swara Kalpanas and the Niraval are aspects of Manodharma in Carnatic music.   Mantra   A short phrase or group of letters of the Sanskrit language, meant for constant mental repetition, thereby gaining a curious power and impulse. Mantra is derived from the word ‘manana’ meaning memory or thinking. Magical properties are assigned to a Mantra such as those of purifying the mind, entering it and stilling it.   Marga   Ancient, or classical, as against Desiya which is provincial and local, belonging to the region. A strict sense of rules is the characteristic of Marga, while Desiya makes local adaptations of the rules. Thus there are Marga and Desiya varieties of both Ragas and Talas. Marga Kriya   The classical or Marga technique of reckoning musical time.   Markata Taana   A kind of Taana that mimics the gait of a monkey. The movement of Taanas is often likened to the gait of animals like the elephant, peacock or snake. For instance, a Taana is often said to be lumbering like a bear or jerky and jumpy like a frog.   Matanga   Author of the Brihaddesi of the fifth century. Matanga is believed to be the originator of the Raga system of Indian music. All the later Lakshanakaras quote him widely.   Matra   A unit of time measure and is used as the basic unit of the 108 talas of Indian music.   Mavu   The paste of rice and water applied to the left side of the Mridangam, left side to dampen the vibrations and add tone and timbre to the sound. The quantity and spread of the paste is adjusted so that the sound emitted is about an octave or the Panchama below the note played on the right side of the mridangam. Meend   A smooth uninterrupted glide from one note to another. Its closest western equivalent is the pornamento of bowed instruments.   Mela (Melakartha)   A parent scale of notes possessing a definite melodic character, with each note bearing a particular relationship to a tonic note and retaining that characteristic in ascent and descent.  Full complement of seven notes are used in both the ascending and descending scales. There are seventy-two melakarthas emerging from the twelve notes of a full scale. This then becomes the basis from which a raga is derived. The character of a mela is so clear that the shortest section of its ascending or descending notes reveals the identity of the mela to the listener. Its Hindustani equivalent is the Thaat. The melas are seventy-two in number and the thaats are ten in number. The ragas are formed out of these melas as melodic units from which ragas are born.   Melakarta Ragas   Scales which can be made into a Raga. e.g. Hari Kamboji and Kharaharapriya.   Membraphone An instrument that uses a membrane to produce a musical sound. A drum would be a membraphone. It is also called Avanaddha Vadya.   Meru   The fret nearest the peg area of the Veena.   Minor tone   A Sruti with a frequency interval of about 10/9. The interval between the chatusruthi rishaba and the antara gandhara is a minor tonic.   Misra Raga   Compound ragas, which are usually two Ragas joined together. There are several styles of mixing Ragas. The Poorvanga of one raga with the uttaranga of the other is one way of effecting this. The real test of a mishra raga is in the way the two ragas mesh into each other. This requires skill and intellect in the musician.   Misra Tala   A compound of two Talas.   Modal Shift   Shifting the reference note (Shadja), in order to produce another raga. Also see Graha Bheda.   Mode   The Greek and ecclesiastical scales. See also Major Scale.   Mohara   The concluding seal of a performance sometimes done three times. It is usually done in rhythmic display. The finish then feels conclusive and final. (This is so yucky. Can’t this be done better?)   Moorchana   The scales that emerge when each successive note of the scale is made the tonic note and a new set of notes defined from that point. The word is deriving drorm the root moorcha, meaning unconsciousness. The change of the Shadja in emphasising a note gives the mind an oppurtunity to take another pathway, which changes the feel of the first Raga that was being performed. This new pathway ends in a new Raga, with redefined relationships among the notes. When Ragas are derived from Moorchanas, the technique is called Moorchana Paddhati.   Moorchanakaraka Raga   A raga from which several Moorchanas emerge.   Morsing   A thin flat iron slip called the tongue attached to the ring shaped circular metal passing across the centre of the ring and sticking out just a little. The instrument is held in the mouth and struch with the forefinger which makes the metal tongue vibrate, making the mouth act as a resonator. This instrument is used to play Laya and Jati sequences along with the Mridangam. The Morsing can be made to appropriate the scale of the singer by using a little wax at the tip of the tongue. See also Jew’s Harp.   Mridangam   The classical two-faced drum, used as percussion in Carnatic music, and played horizontally with the two hands by laying it on the lap. Mridangam literally means ‘made of clay’. It is actually made out of a scooped out single block of wood, usually from the Neem tree or Jack or Coconut. A smooth paste of rice flour and water is used on the left side to dampen the two skin tympani (See Mavu). A mixture of rice paste and iron filings is permanently loaded on the right drumhead. The Mridangam can be made to sound like a human voice, with a rich tone and timbre. This makes its use as an accompanying percussion instrument very evocative.   Mudra   The signature used by the composer as part of the lyrics of a Kriti. Usually, the Mudra identifies the name of the composer, but one other use of the signature is the imaginative incorporation of the Raga name into the composition.   Mukhavina   A wind instrument, like a small Nagaswaram. N    Nabhi swara   A kind of vocal production that is layered with harmonics and seems to originate at the navel of the singer.   Nada   A mystical concept that has several connotations, one of which is the Nadabramha, which is an esoteric understanding of the silence of the spheres. On a more physical level, it refers to the basic vibration that enters the audio level and can be heard as sound as it impinges on the consciousness - the matrix of sound. It can be subdivided into Ahata nada (the heard sound) and Anahata nada (the unheard sound). Nada roopa   Is the embodied form of nada.   Nadaswaram   See Nagaswaram   Nadopasana   It is the practice of nada as a meditative exercise that cleanses one's musical perceptions.   Nadopasika   Refers to one who meditates on the swaras of music and obtains the power of nada from the exercise.   Nadayoga   It is a Sanskrit term used to describe the meditation on a swara as a kind of yoga where the swara is understood to be the fundamental sound and the raga, secondary.   Nadayogi   Is a musician who practices music as part of yoga, a kind of rigorous discipline that involves the gathering of one's faculties and focussing on the Art.   Nagaswaram   An ancient Carnatic wind instrument, similar to the Western Clarinet.   Navaratnamala   It is a garland of nine kirtanas composed by Swati Tirunal on the theme of bhakti. There are nine kinds of bhakti - sravanam (attentive listening), kirtanam (singing religious songs), smaranam (mentally imagining the deity), padasevanam (worshipping at the feet of the deity), archanam (making an offering), vandanam (paying one's respects), dasyam (offering one's services to the deity), sakhyam (constant companionship) and atmanivedanam (self-enquiry).   Navaratri kriti   Refers to a set of nine kritis in praise of Goddess Devi, specially composed by Swati Tirunal to be sung during the Navaratri festival.   Navavarna kritis   Refers to a set of nine kritis in praise of Goddess Devi, to be sung during the nine days of the Navaratri festival. There are two such sets, one composed by Oottukadu Venkatasubbayyar and one by Muthuswami Dikshitar.   Nibaddha   It refers to a composition that is set to a tala. It is the opposite of Anibaddha, which is the unbounded area of a raga, i.e. alapana.   Nindastuti   Refers to that form of worship (Bhakti) in which the faults of the God/Goddess is highlighted as an indirect act of adoration. There are many compositions based on this form of Bhakti.   Nishada or Ni   It is the seventh note of the Indian scale.   Nisabdha kriya   It is the act of reckoning rhythm without sound.   Niyama   Sanskrit word that means rules. There are various niyamas (rules) by which Ragas, Talas and Sahitya are bound.   Nyasa swara   It is the final note on which a phrase or an alapana rests. O      Om   According to Hindu cosmology it is the sound that pervades the entire universe - the sound of silence. It represents the Absolute as sound and is often called Nadabrahma. The production of this sound by the human voice is the totality of al perceived vibrations, whether by the ear or the subtle senses of the spirit.       P     Padam or pada   Is a poetic composition with verses of lyrics.   Pallavi   In Carnatic music it referts to the basic first movement. In the Hindustani system, it is called sthayi.   Panchama or Pa   Refers to the fifth note of the scale. It is a constant note and does not have a sharp or flat variations.   Pluta   Refers to one of the seven parts of the tala and has a total of 12 counts or aksharas.   Poorvanga   It is the lower tetrachord of the scale, the first four notes, Sa, Ri Ga and Ma Prayoga   Refers to the technique of expression in raga, a characteristic progression, a manner of negotiation on the scale.   Pundarik Vittal   One of the great musicologists of South India, who lived in the 16th century. He wrote several treatises like Ragamala, Raga manjari and Nritya nirnaya. R    Raga   Constitutes the basis of the music of the subcontinent. A raga is basically a melody.   Ragamala   Literally means a garland of ragas.   Rasika   A lover of music   Rishabha or Ri   Is the second note of Indian music.   Roopaka tala   A tala that has six counts. It also refers to the third of the Sapta Talas which has a dhrutam and a laghu. (See Sapta Talas) S     Sabha   An organisation that gives patronage to music/dance.   Sabha gana   Denotes singing in a sabha or to a large audience - public concert. Sadhana   Is a word commonly used to indicate practice Sahitya Lyrics or prosody Samasthana or Asthana vidwan Refers to a musician recognized by the royal court or a respected musical establishment. Sampoorna Jati / Raga   Refes to a raga that has all the seven notes in it. Samvadi   Refers to the relationship between any given swara (which becomes the vadi swara) to its perfect fourth or perfect fifth. Eg. The relationship between Sa and Ma or Sa and Pa, where Sa is the Vadi swara and Ma/Pa become the Samvadi swara.   Sanchara   Literally means motion. In music, it indicates a manner of exploration of the terrain of a raga with a particular gait, geometry, progression and rest. Sangeeta or Sangita   Is a Sanskrit term that means music. It has two parts, ‘san’, which is derived from 'sam', which means together and 'geet' , which means song.   Sangeeta Makaranda   Is a treatise on music, by Narada around the ninth century.   Sangeeta Parijata   A treatise on music, written by Pandit Ahobal around 1750 AD.   Sangeeta Ratnakara   One of the major treatises on Indian music, written around the thirteenth century, authored by Sarangadeva. It covers a wide area of scholarship and understanding and has influenced all subsequent writings on music.   Sangeeta Saramrita   Was written by the Maharaja of Tanjavur, Tulaja between1763-68.   Sangeet upasana   The devoted practice of music.   Sarani   Refers to the first of the two middle strings of the tambura and is tuned to Shadja, the tonic note.   Sarangadeva   Was a musicologist who lived between 1175 and 1247 AD and authored the well-known treatise on music Sangeeta Ratnakara.   Shadava   Refers to a sequence of six notes either in the ascent or descent.   Shadja or Sa   The very first note of the Indian scale. It is a fixed note with no variable values.   Shankha   Refers to the conch shell and is believed to be the instrument of Lord Vishnu. Shehnai   A wind instrument similar to the clarinet, used in Hindustani music. Its Carnatic counterpart is the Nagaswaram.   Sishya   A student or disciple.   Sloka   A Sanskrit word for poetry, usually of four lines and considered sacred and powerful.   Sringara   Is one of the nava rasas (nine emotions) and indicates love.   Sruti   Refers to the microtonal intervals between notes. Twenty-two such microtonal points have been identified in Carnatic music.   Solkattu   Refers to the mnemonics of Indian dance, specifically Bharatanatyam.   Sthayi   Means octave in Carnatic music.   Suddha   Sanskrit word for pure or untainted.   Swara   The solfa note in Indian music.   Swara bedha   Refers to the technique of modal shift of the tonic note.   Swara lipi   It is the notation or the score of a musical composition. Lipi means script and thus the writing of the swara is a literal translation.   Swaramela Kalanidhi   A treatise on Carnatic music authored by Ramamatya in 1550.   Swara prasthara   See Kalpanaswara T     Tala Refers to the physical expression of Laya or rhythm usually expressed in the form of beats, wave of the hand or finger-counts.   Tala vadya   Means percussion instrument.   Tambura (tanpura)   Is a four-stringed instrument in Indian instrument used to provide a constant pitch/drone.   Tara sthayi   Higher octave.   Tillana   A musical composition that mostly uses jatis, but also has some lyrics in the Charanam.   Tukkada   Literally means piece. Usually refers to the songs that are sung in the latter half of a Carnatic concert, after the main piece. U    Uttaranga   Refers to the upper tetrachord of the scale and includes the notes Pa, Da, Ni and Sa (of the next octave).  V     Vadya   Means instrument in Indian music.   Vaggeyakara   Is derived from the words Vak (speech), geya (to sing) and kara (one who does). Thus it refers to a composer who composes both the lyrics and the tune.   Vakra   Literally means twisted or irregular. In the context of ragas, it indicates a break in the continuity or regularity of the accepted order of notes either in the arohana-avarohana (ascent-descent).

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